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Integration is essentially differentiation in reverse! So in the simpler cases instead of multiplying by the power of x and subtracting one from the power of x, you add one to the power of x and divide by...

The student can answer this in several ways. One using the simple, known identities csc= 1/sin, cot=1/tan, sec=1/cos, tan=sin/cos, sin^2 + cos^2 = 1 and basic algebra is the following:
4csc^2 - cot^2...