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Stimulus --> receptor --> coordinator --> effector --> response. Pin prick --> skin receptors --> sensory neurone --> relay neurone --> motor neurone --> effector muscle --> ...

Folding of proteins occurs in 4 distinct stages: primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary. Primary structure is the formation of the amino acid (peptide) sequence, here the amino acids are joined toget...

During aerobic respiration, NAD and FAD collect protons and electrons from respiratory substrates. These electrons can be released into the transport chain of the mitochondrial matrix because oxygen is pr...

Eutrophication is the process of artificially increasing the mineral content of water as a result of nitrogen-containing fertilisers, especially nitrates, leaching from agricultural land. The nitrates and...

As birds are a motile organism, we would use the mark-release-recapture method. First, capture a sample of individuals (possibly through mist netting), mark them (e.g. a wing tag or leg ring) and release....